Advances in Regulation of Damaged Skin Regeneration by Two-dimensional Inorganic Materials

doi:10.15541/jim20240508

Abstract

Abstract:

Two-dimensional (2D) inorganic materials, as a class of inorganic ultrathin nanosheets with single or several atomic layers, exhibit high specific surface area, high electrical conductivity and/or photothermal conversion efficiency. These unique physicochemical properties confer procoagulant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant biological effects. In recent years, in view of degradation and metabolism issues, these materials have been explored for modulation of diseased skin tissues, such as full-thickness wounds, burns and diabetic wounds, demonstrating remarkable effects in accelerating wound healing, alleviating infections and improving the inflammatory microenvironment. This review focuses on the unique structure and biological effects of 2D inorganic materials, systematically describes their applications in wound healing and related mechanisms, and looks forward to current challenges and prospects of 2D inorganic materials in the field of skin repair.

Key words: two-dimensional inorganic material, skin repair, microenvironmental regulation, review

CLC Number:

R751
TB321

XIAO Xiaolin, WANG Yuxiang, GU Peiyang, ZHU Zhenrong, SUN Yong. Advances in Regulation of Damaged Skin Regeneration by Two-dimensional Inorganic Materials[J]. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2025, 40(8): 860-870.

Figures/Tables 8

References 81

[1]	WU A J, ZHU M, ZHU Y F. Copper-incorporated calcium silicate nanorods composite hydrogels for tumor therapy and skin wound healing. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2022, 37(11): 1203. DOI
[2]	ZHANG H, HAN K Y, DONG L L, et al. Preparation and characterization of β-tricalcium phosphate/nano clay composite scaffolds via digital light processing printing. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2022, 37(10): 1116. DOI
[3]	SHI J X, ZHAI D, ZHU M, et al. Preparation and characterization of bioactive glass-manganese dioxide composite scaffolds. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2022, 37(4): 427. DOI
[4]	杜琳, 薛健民, 郇志广, 等. 含钼的硅酸盐生物陶瓷释放的化学离子对肌腱-骨相关的多细胞调控. 化学学报, 2023, 81(10): 1334. DOI
[5]	BAO F, CHANG J. Calcium silicate nanowires based composite electrospun scaffolds: preparation, ion release and cytocompatibility. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2021, 36(11): 1199. DOI
[6]	ZHU Y, ZHANG X, CHANG G, et al. Bioactive glass in tissue regeneration: unveiling recent advances in regenerative strategies and applications. Advanced Materials, 2024, 37(2): 2312964.
[7]	WU R, ZHANG M H, JIN C Y, et al. Photothermal core-shell TiN@borosilicate bioglass nanoparticles: degradation and mineralization. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2023, 38(6): 708. DOI
[8]	WU C T, CHANG J. Silicate bioceramics for bone tissue regeneration. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2013, 28(1): 29.
[9]	GUO Y, XU K, WU C, et al. Surface chemical-modification for engineering the intrinsic physical properties of inorganic two-dimensional nanomaterials. Chemical Society Reviews, 2015, 44(3): 637. DOI PMID
[10]	YANG B, CHEN Y, SHI J. Material chemistry of two-dimensional inorganic nanosheets in cancer theranostics. Chem, 2018, 4(6): 1284.
[11]	TAN A Y S, LO N W, CHENG F, et al. 2D carbon materials based photoelectrochemical biosensors for detection of cancer antigens. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2023, 219: 114811.
[12]	SAKTHIVEL R, KEERTHI M, CHUNG R J, et al. Heterostructures of 2D materials and their applications in biosensing. Progress in Materials Science, 2023, 132: 101024.
[13]	BAI Z, ZHAO L, BAI Y, et al. Research progress on MXenes: preparation, property and application in tumor theranostics. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2022, 37(4): 361. DOI
[14]	LIU S, PAN X, LIU H. Two-dimensional nanomaterials for photothermal therapy. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2020, 59(15): 5890.
[15]	WANG X, MA B, XUE J, et al. Defective black nano-titania thermogels for cutaneous tumor-induced therapy and healing. Nano Letters, 2019, 19(3): 2138. DOI PMID
[16]	PENG G, FADEEL B. Understanding the bidirectional interactions between two-dimensional materials, microorganisms, and the immune system. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2022, 188: 114422.
[17]	CHANG T H, LI K, YANG H, et al. Multifunctionality and mechanical actuation of 2D materials for skin-mimicking capabilities. Advanced Materials, 2018, 30(47): 1802418.
[18]	KIM J, LEE Y, KANG M, et al. 2D Materials for skin-mountable electronic devices. Advanced Materials, 2021, 33(47): 2005858.
[19]	KIM H S, SUN X, LEE J H, et al. Advanced drug delivery systems and artificial skin grafts for skin wound healing. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2019, 146: 209. DOI PMID
[20]	OLSSON M, JÄRBRINK K, DIVAKAR U, et al. The humanistic and economic burden of chronic wounds: a systematic review. Wound Repair and Regeneration, 2019, 27(1): 114. DOI PMID
[21]	PEÑA O A, MARTIN P. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of skin wound healing. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 2024, 25(8): 599.
[22]	XUE M, ZHAO R, LIN H, et al. Delivery systems of current biologicals for the treatment of chronic cutaneous wounds and severe burns. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2018, 129: 219. DOI PMID
[23]	TU C, LU H, ZHOU T, et al. Promoting the healing of infected diabetic wound by an anti-bacterial and nano-enzyme-containing hydrogel with inflammation-suppressing, ROS-scavenging, oxygen and nitric oxide-generating properties. Biomaterials, 2022, 286: 121597.
[24]	WANG G, YANG F, ZHOU W, et al. The initiation of oxidative stress and therapeutic strategies in wound healing. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 2023, 157: 114004.
[25]	PEREIRA R F, BARRIAS C C, GRANJA P L, et al. Advanced biofabrication strategies for skin regeneration and repair. Nanomedicine, 2013, 8(4): 603.
[26]	ZHAO J, LI T, YUE Y, et al. Advancements in employing two-dimensional nanomaterials for enhancing skin wound healing: a review of current practice. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 2024, 22(1): 520. DOI PMID
[27]	TU Y, LV M, XIU P, et al. Destructive extraction of phospholipids from Escherichia coli membranes by graphene nanosheets. Nature Nanotechnology, 2013, 8(8): 594.
[28]	RASOOL K, HELAL M, ALI A, et al. Antibacterial activity of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene. ACS Nano, 2016, 10(3): 3674.
[29]	AKHAVAN O, GHADERI E. Toxicity of graphene and graphene oxide nanowalls against bacteria. ACS Nano, 2010, 4(10): 5731. DOI PMID
[30]	PULINGAM T, THONG K L, APPATURI J N, et al. Mechanistic actions and contributing factors affecting the antibacterial property and cytotoxicity of graphene oxide. Chemosphere, 2021, 281: 130739.
[31]	SONG W, WANG D, XIAO S, et al. NIR-II-amplify high-entropy MXene-based sonosensitizer as sonodynamic therapy promotes methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-infected wound healing. Materials & Design, 2024, 240: 112857.
[32]	SEIDI F, SHAMSABADI A A, FIROUZJAEI M D, et al. MXenes antibacterial properties and applications: a review and perspective. Small, 2023, 19(14): e2206716.
[33]	WANG T, SUN X, GUO X, et al. Ultraefficiently calming cytokine storm using Ti₃C₂T_x MXene. Small Methods, 2021, 5(5): 2001108.
[34]	CAI Q, LI L H, MATETI S, et al. Boron nitride nanosheets: thickness-related properties and applications. Advanced Functional Materials, 2024, 34(40): 2403669.
[35]	CHUNG J Y, YUAN Y, MISHRA T P, et al. Structure and exfoliation mechanism of two-dimensional boron nanosheets. Nature Communications, 2024, 15: 6122.
[36]	ALI S, RAZA A, AFZAL A M, et al. Recent advances in 2D-MXene based nanocomposites for optoelectronics. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2022, 9(31): 2200556.
[37]	SO Y, YIM D, SON W, et al. Deciphering the therapeutic mechanism of topical WS₂nanosheets for the effective therapy of burn injuries. Applied Materials Today, 2022, 29: 101591.
[38]	BANERJEE A N. Graphene and its derivatives as biomedical materials: future prospects and challenges. Interface Focus, 2018, 8(3): 20170056.
[39]	SHARIATI A, HOSSEINI S M, CHEGINI Z, et al. Graphene- based materials for inhibition of wound infection and accelerating wound healing. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 2023, 158: 114184.
[40]	HUANG H, FENG W, CHEN Y. Two-dimensional biomaterials: material science, biological effect and biomedical engineering applications. Chemical Society Reviews, 2021, 50(20): 11381. DOI PMID
[41]	ZHANG B, HE J, SHI M, et al. Injectable self-healing supramolecular hydrogels with conductivity and photo-thermal antibacterial activity to enhance complete skin regeneration. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 400: 125994.
[42]	MARCO P, LAURA F, VERONICA L, et al. Differential cytotoxic effects of graphene and graphene oxide on skin keratinocytes. Chemical Scientific Reports, 2017, 7: 40572.
[43]	YANG K, LI Y, TAN X, et al. Behavior and toxicity of graphene and its functionalized derivatives in biological systems. Small, 2013, 9(9/10): 1492. DOI PMID
[44]	SASIDHARAN A, PANCHAKARLA L S, SADANANDAN A R, et al. Hemocompatibility and macrophage response of pristine and functionalized graphene. Small, 2012, 8(8): 1251. DOI PMID
[45]	LI Y, LIU Y, FU Y, et al. The triggering of apoptosis in macrophages by pristine graphene through the MAPK and TGF-beta signaling pathways. Biomaterials, 2012, 33(2): 402. DOI PMID
[46]	WU N, YANG W, CHE S, et al. Green preparation of high-yield and large-size hydrophilic boron nitride nanosheets by tannic acid- assisted aqueous ball milling for thermal management. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2023, 164: 107266.
[47]	CHEN C, YU B, JIA H, et al. Efficient preparation of hydrophilic boron nitride nanosheets for human heat dissipation applications. ACS Applied Nano Materials, 2024, 7(10): 11487.
[48]	LV J, QI Y, TIAN Y, et al. Functionalized boron nanosheets with near-infrared-triggered photothermal and nitric oxide release activities for efficient antibacterial treatment and wound healing promotion. Biomaterials Science, 2022, 10(14): 3747.
[49]	PELEGRINO M T, WELLER R B, CHEN X, et al. Chitosan nanoparticles for nitric oxide delivery in human skin. MedChemComm, 2017, 8(4): 713. DOI PMID
[50]	CARPENTER A W, SCHOENFISCH M H. Nitric oxide release: part II. Therapeutic applications. Chemical Society Reviews, 2012, 41(10): 3742. DOI PMID
[51]	LIU Y, QIU Z, CARVALHO A, et al. Gate-tunable giant Stark effect in few-layer black phosphorus. Nano Letters, 2017, 17(3): 1970. DOI PMID
[52]	MAO C, XIANG Y, LIU X, et al. Repeatable photodynamic therapy with triggered signaling pathways of fibroblast cell proliferation and differentiation to promote bacteria-accompanied wound healing. ACS Nano, 2018, 12(2): 1747. DOI PMID
[53]	GE J, LAN M, ZHOU B, et al. A graphene quantum dot photodynamic therapy agent with high singlet oxygen generation. Nature Communications, 2014, 5: 4596. DOI PMID
[54]	WALIA S, BALENDHRAN S, AHMED T, et al. Ambient protection of gew-layer black phosphorus via sequestration of reactive oxygen species. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(27): 1700152.
[55]	TONG L, LIAO Q, ZHAO Y, et al. Near-infrared light control of bone regeneration with biodegradable photothermal osteoimplant. Biomaterials, 2019, 193: 1. DOI PMID
[56]	DING Q, SUN T, SU W, et al. Bioinspired multifunctional black phosphorus hydrogel with antibacterial and antioxidant properties: a stepwise countermeasure for diabetic skin wound healing. Advanced Healthcare Materials, 2022, 11(12): 2102791.
[57]	LUO X, ZHANG L, LUO Y, et al. Charge-driven self-assembled microspheres hydrogel scaffolds for combined drug delivery and photothermal therapy of diabetic wounds. Advanced Functional Materials, 2023, 33(26): 2214036.
[58]	SHAO J, XIE H, HUANG H, et al. Biodegradable black phosphorus-based nanospheres for in vivo photothermal cancer therapy. Nature Communications, 2016, 7: 12967.
[59]	WANG H, YANG X, SHAO W, et al. Ultrathin black phosphorus nanosheets for efficient singlet oxygen generation. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2015, 137(35): 11376.
[60]	LV R, ROBINSON J A, SCHAAK R E, et al. Transition metal dichalcogenides and beyond: synthesis, properties, and applications of single- and few-layer nanosheets. Accounts of Chemical Research, 2015, 48(1): 56. DOI PMID
[61]	LIN Y C, DUMCENCO D O, HUANG Y S, et al. Atomic mechanism of the semiconducting-to-metallic phase transition in single-layered MoS₂. Nature Nanotechnology, 2014, 9(5): 391.
[62]	ZHANG H. Ultrathin two-dimensional nanomaterials. ACS Nano, 2015, 9(10): 9451. DOI PMID
[63]	SPLENDIANI A, SUN L, ZHANG Y, et al. Emerging photoluminescence in monolayer MoS₂. Nano Letters, 2010, 10(4): 1271. DOI PMID
[64]	SUN Y, LI Y, DING X, et al. An NIR-responsive hydrogel loaded with polydeoxyribonucleotide nano-vectors for enhanced chronic wound healing. Biomaterials, 2025, 314: 122789.
[65]	ZHAO Y, XU J, JIANG X. DNA cleavage by chemically exfoliated molybdenum disulfide nanosheets. Environmental Science & Technology, 2021, 55(6): 4037.
[66]	WANG P, WU J, XIAO X, et al. Engineering injectable coassembled hydrogel by photothermal driven chitosan-stabilized MoS₂ nanosheets for infected wound healing. ACS Nano, 2024, 18(39): 26961.
[67]	LI L, CHENG Q. Recent advances in the high performance MXenes nanocomposites. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2024, 39(2): 153.
[68]	BARSOUM M W. The M_N₊₁AX_N phases: a new class of solids: thermodynamically stable nanolaminates. Progress in Solid State Chemistry, 2000, 28(1): 201.
[69]	LI Y, FU R, DUAN Z, et al. Artificial nonenzymatic antioxidant MXene aanosheet-anchored injectable hydrogel as a mild photothermal-controlled oxygen release platform for diabetic wound healing. ACS Nano, 2022, 16(5): 7486.
[70]	REN X, HUO M, WANG M, et al. Highly catalytic niobium carbide (MXene) promotes hematopoietic recovery after radiation by free radical scavenging. ACS Nano, 2019, 13(6): 6438. DOI PMID
[71]	WU Y, ZHENG W, XIAO Y, et al. Multifunctional, robust, and porous PHBV-GO/MXene composite membranes with good hydrophilicity, antibacterial activity, and platelet adsorption performance. Polymers, 2021, 13(21): 3748.
[72]	LUO R, DAI J, ZHANG J, et al. Accelerated skin wound healing by electrical stimulation. Advanced Healthcare Materials, 2021, 10(16): 2100557.
[73]	VERDES M, MACE K, MARGETTS L, et al. Status and challenges of electrical stimulation use in chronic wound healing. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 2022, 75: 102710.
[74]	ZHENG H, WANG S, CHENG F, et al. Bioactive anti- inflammatory, antibacterial, conductive multifunctional scaffold based on MXene@CeO₂nanocomposites for infection-impaired skin multimodal therapy. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 424: 130148.
[75]	LI D, HU X, ZHANG S. Biodegradation of graphene-based nanomaterials in blood plasma affects their biocompatibility, drug delivery, targeted organs and antitumor ability. Biomaterials, 2019, 202: 12. DOI PMID
[76]	HAO J, SONG G, LIU T, et al. In vivo long-term biodistribution, excretion, and toxicology of PEGylated transition-metal dichalcogenides MS₂ (M = Mo, W, Ti) nanosheets. Advanced Science, 2017, 4(1): 1600160.
[77]	MA B, MARTÍN C, KURAPATI R, et al. Degradation-by-design: how chemical functionalization enhances the biodegradability and safety of 2D materials. Chemical Society Reviews, 2020, 49(17): 6224. DOI PMID
[78]	ZHANG S, ZHANG X, LEI L, et al. pH-dependent degradation of layered black phosphorus: essential role of hydroxide ions. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2019, 58(2): 467.
[79]	PATON K R, VARRLA E, BACKES C, et al. Scalable production of large quantities of defect-free few-layer graphene by shear exfoliation in liquids. Nature Materials, 2014, 13(6): 62.
[80]	TANG L, TAN J, NONG H, et al. Chemical vapor deposition growth of two-dimensional compound materials: controllability, material quality, and growth mechanism. Accounts of Materials Research, 2021, 2(1): 36.
[81]	GAO Y, HONG Y L, YIN L C, et al. Ultrafast growth of high-quality monolayer WSe₂ on Au. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(29): 1700990.

Material		Characteristic	Ref.
Graphene/GO/rGO	QCS-CD-AD/GO supramolecular hydrogel	rGO-CD: 0.6% (in mass) Swelling ratio: 129% Conductivity: 0.07-0.11 S/m Wound closure rate: 98.3%	[41]
Boron-based 2D materials	p-BNNSs@PVA thin film	p-BNNSs: 30% (in mass) Thermal conductivity: 7.38 W/(m·K)	[47]
Boron-based 2D materials	B-QCS-BNN6	Bacterial inactivation rate: >99.9% (under NIR irradiation)	[48]
BP nanosheets	CS-BP hydrogel	E. coli inactivation rate: 98.90% S. aureus inactivation rate: 99.51%	[52]
	4OI-BP@Gel	Bacterial inactivation rate: >90% ROS clearance rate: 51.9% Wound healing rate: 99.64% (under NIR irradiation)	[56]
	SMHS	Degradation product: PO₄^3-/HPO₄^2-	[57]
TMD	WS₂ nanosheet	Cell viability of 2H-WS₂: 100% Cell viability of 1H-WS₂: 60.4% (150 μg/mL, 48 h)	[37]
	PCNPs@NIR-gel	Swelling ratio: 169% Bacterial inactivation rate: >99.9% (under NIR irradiation)	[64]
	MoS₂@CSH	Bacterial inactivation rate: ~100% (under NIR irradiation)	[66]
MXenes	Ti₃C₂ MXenes nanosheet	DPPH clearance: 80% (2 mg) Wound closure rate: 98.8%	[69]
MXenes	GO/MXene laminate	GO/MXene: 0.5% (in mass) Coagulation time: 379 s	[71]

Material		Characteristic	Ref.
Graphene/GO/rGO	QCS-CD-AD/GO supramolecular hydrogel	rGO-CD: 0.6% (in mass) Swelling ratio: 129% Conductivity: 0.07-0.11 S/m Wound closure rate: 98.3%	[41]
Boron-based 2D materials	p-BNNSs@PVA thin film	p-BNNSs: 30% (in mass) Thermal conductivity: 7.38 W/(m·K)	[47]
Boron-based 2D materials	B-QCS-BNN6	Bacterial inactivation rate: >99.9% (under NIR irradiation)	[48]
BP nanosheets	CS-BP hydrogel	E. coli inactivation rate: 98.90% S. aureus inactivation rate: 99.51%	[52]
	4OI-BP@Gel	Bacterial inactivation rate: >90% ROS clearance rate: 51.9% Wound healing rate: 99.64% (under NIR irradiation)	[56]
	SMHS	Degradation product: PO₄^3-/HPO₄^2-	[57]
TMD	WS₂ nanosheet	Cell viability of 2H-WS₂: 100% Cell viability of 1H-WS₂: 60.4% (150 μg/mL, 48 h)	[37]
	PCNPs@NIR-gel	Swelling ratio: 169% Bacterial inactivation rate: >99.9% (under NIR irradiation)	[64]
	MoS₂@CSH	Bacterial inactivation rate: ~100% (under NIR irradiation)	[66]
MXenes	Ti₃C₂ MXenes nanosheet	DPPH clearance: 80% (2 mg) Wound closure rate: 98.8%	[69]
MXenes	GO/MXene laminate	GO/MXene: 0.5% (in mass) Coagulation time: 379 s	[71]

Material	Type of skin defect	Mechanism	Ref.
QCS-CD-AD/GO supramolecular hydrogel	Full-thickness wounds	Bacterial cell membrane damage Modulation of immune cells Reduction: IL-6 Up-regulation: VEGF	[41]
p-BNNSs@PVA thin film	High-temperature environment	Out-of-plane thermal conductivity (TC): 7.38 W/(m·K) The higher TC, the faster heat dissipation	[47]
B-QCS-BNN6	MRSA infection	Bacterial cell membrane damage Controlled release of NO	[48]
CS-BP hydrogel	Bacterial infection	Producing ¹O₂ Promoting formation of the fibrinogen Activation: PI3K, Akt, ERK1/2	[52]
4OI-BP@Gel	Diabetic ulcers	High PTT (photothermal therapy) and PDT (photodynamics therapy) efficacy Up-regulation: Nrf2, HO-1 Activation: KEAP1-Nrf2	[56]
SMHS	Diabetic ulcers	Enhancing M2 activation Bacterial cell membrane damage Promoting collagen deposition	[57]
WS₂ nanosheet	Deep burn	Up-regulation: CAT, GPx, antimicrobial peptides Reduction: TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-6 Reduction: caspase-8, caspase-3, PARP	[37]
PCNPs@NIR-gel	Diabetic total skin defects	Bacterial cell membrane damage Up-regulation: VEGF, α-SMA Reduction: TGF-β, MPO Enhancing M2 activation Promoting collagen deposition Activation: PI3K-Akt, cAMP	[64]
MoS₂@CSH	Irregular wounds	Increase: CD31 Up-regulation: TNF-α	[66]
Ti₃C₂MXenes nanosheet	Diabetic ulcers	Enhancing M2 activation Scavenging ABTS^•+ Increase: IL-10, CD31 Up-regulation: TNF-α, HIF-1α, VEGF, α-SMA	[69]
GO/MXene laminate	Skin hemostasis	Presence of hydroxyl groups and terminal oxygen Free radical polymerization of ester bonds	[71]

Material	Type of skin defect	Mechanism	Ref.
QCS-CD-AD/GO supramolecular hydrogel	Full-thickness wounds	Bacterial cell membrane damage Modulation of immune cells Reduction: IL-6 Up-regulation: VEGF	[41]
p-BNNSs@PVA thin film	High-temperature environment	Out-of-plane thermal conductivity (TC): 7.38 W/(m·K) The higher TC, the faster heat dissipation	[47]
B-QCS-BNN6	MRSA infection	Bacterial cell membrane damage Controlled release of NO	[48]
CS-BP hydrogel	Bacterial infection	Producing ¹O₂ Promoting formation of the fibrinogen Activation: PI3K, Akt, ERK1/2	[52]
4OI-BP@Gel	Diabetic ulcers	High PTT (photothermal therapy) and PDT (photodynamics therapy) efficacy Up-regulation: Nrf2, HO-1 Activation: KEAP1-Nrf2	[56]
SMHS	Diabetic ulcers	Enhancing M2 activation Bacterial cell membrane damage Promoting collagen deposition	[57]
WS₂ nanosheet	Deep burn	Up-regulation: CAT, GPx, antimicrobial peptides Reduction: TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-6 Reduction: caspase-8, caspase-3, PARP	[37]
PCNPs@NIR-gel	Diabetic total skin defects	Bacterial cell membrane damage Up-regulation: VEGF, α-SMA Reduction: TGF-β, MPO Enhancing M2 activation Promoting collagen deposition Activation: PI3K-Akt, cAMP	[64]
MoS₂@CSH	Irregular wounds	Increase: CD31 Up-regulation: TNF-α	[66]
Ti₃C₂MXenes nanosheet	Diabetic ulcers	Enhancing M2 activation Scavenging ABTS^•+ Increase: IL-10, CD31 Up-regulation: TNF-α, HIF-1α, VEGF, α-SMA	[69]
GO/MXene laminate	Skin hemostasis	Presence of hydroxyl groups and terminal oxygen Free radical polymerization of ester bonds	[71]