Nanomaterials and Biosensing Technology for the SARS-CoV-2 Detection

doi:10.15541/jim20220218

Abstract

Abstract:

The outbreak of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has aroused great attention around the world. SARS-CoV-2 possesses characteristics of faster transmission, immune escape, and occult transmission by many mutation, which caused still grim situation of prevention and control. Early detection and isolation of patients are still the most effective measures at present. So, there is an urgent need for new rapid and highly sensitive testing tools to quickly identify infected patients as soon as possible. This review briefly introduces general characteristics of SARS-CoV-2, and provides recentl overview and analysis based on different detection methods for nucleic acids, antibodies, antigens as detection target. Novel nano-biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection are analyzed based on optics, electricity, magnetism, and visualization. In view of the advantages of nanotechnology in improving detection sensitivity, specificity and accuracy, the research progress of new nano-biosensors is introduced in detail, including SERS-based biosensors, electrochemical biosensors, magnetic nano-biosensors and colorimetric biosensors. Functions and challenges of nano-materials in construction of new nano-biosensors are discussed, which provides ideas for the development of various coronavirus biosensing technologies for nanomaterial researchers.

Key words: SARS-CoV-2, detection method, nucleic acid, antibody, antigen, nanomaterial, biosensor, review

CLC Number:

TQ174

LI Yanyan, PENG Yusi, LIN Chenglong, LUO Xiaoying, TENG Zheng, ZHANG Xi, HUANG Zhengren, YANG Yong. Nanomaterials and Biosensing Technology for the SARS-CoV-2 Detection[J]. Journal of Inorganic Materials, 2023, 38(1): 3-31.

Figures/Tables 20

Fig. 1 TEM image (A) and schemetic morphology (B) of SARS-CoV-2[9] The color figures can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 2 Classification (a, c), symptoms (b) and structure (c) of coronavirus[16] The color figures can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 3 Scheme of the lab-on-a-chip genosensor for SARS- CoV-2 virus detection[35] WE: working electrode; CE: counter electrode; RE: reference electrode; ssDNA: single strand DNA The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 4 Principle workflow of ddPCR in analyzing clinical samples[37] The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 5 Detection of SARS-CoV-2 based on CRISPR-Cas12 combined with lateral flow technique[44] The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 6 Change of human immune response after viral infection[16] The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 7 ELISA method for detection of SARS-CoV-2[16] ACE2: angiotensin converting enzyme 2; HRP: horse radish peroxidase; ELISA: enzyme linked immunosorbent assay The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Table 1 Comparison of conventional detection methods for SARS-CoV-2

Object sample	Characteristic	Detection technology	Advantage	Disadvantage
RNA	1. Target: the gene sequences of SARS-CoV-2 2. Great producibility 3. Long detection period 4. Possibility of being contaminated and false positive result	Whole genome sequencing	1. High accuracy and sensitivity 2. Reflecting genetic information of pathogen comprehensively	1. Expensive special instruments 2. Relying on professionals 3. Difficulty in detection on a large scale
		RT-qPCR	1. High sensitivity and specificity 2. Low cost	1. Long amplification time 2. High requirements of equipment 3. Complex operation
		LAMP	1. Isothermal reaction 2. High efficiency and speed 3. High sensitivity and visualization	1. Complex design of primer 2. Low specificity
		Microfluidic chip	1. Multiple detection of pathogens 2. Integration of sample preparation and detection 3. Ability in automate analysis	Difficulty in chip design, material selection, processing, packaging, and storage
		ddPCR	1. High sensitivity and lowest limitation of detection 2. Facilitation and high degree of automation 3. Quantitative detection	1. Small reaction volume 2. Expensive equipment and reagents
		CRISPR	1. High speed and low cost 2. High sensitivity 3. Strong system stability 4. On-site detection	The accuracy of detection needs to be verified
Antibodies	1. Target: human antibodies stimulated by SARS-CoV-2 2. Easy sample collection and low detection threshold 3. Simple operation and high throughput 4. Limitation of timeframe 5. Lower sensitivity and specificity than those of nucleic acid detection	ELISA	1. Low difficulty of standardization of carrier 2. High sensitivity and specificity 3. Simple equipment	1. Long detection time and cumbersome steps 2. Limited single detection throughout
		LFIA (Colloidal gold method)	1. On-site detection caused by easy operation 2. High sensitivity and speed 3. Low cost 4. Mass production	1. Only qualitative analysis 2. Different reproducibility of different batches of products
		CLIA	1. High sensitivity and specificity 2. High throughput detection and high degree of automation	1. Special instrument 2. High detection cost
Antigen	1. Target: SARS-CoV-2 antigen 2. Simple and fast operation	LFIA (Colloidal gold method)	1. Fast and facile operation 2. Visualization 3. On-site detection and large-scale population screening	Low sensitivity

Table 1 Comparison of conventional detection methods for SARS-CoV-2

Object sample	Characteristic	Detection technology	Advantage	Disadvantage
RNA	1. Target: the gene sequences of SARS-CoV-2 2. Great producibility 3. Long detection period 4. Possibility of being contaminated and false positive result	Whole genome sequencing	1. High accuracy and sensitivity 2. Reflecting genetic information of pathogen comprehensively	1. Expensive special instruments 2. Relying on professionals 3. Difficulty in detection on a large scale
		RT-qPCR	1. High sensitivity and specificity 2. Low cost	1. Long amplification time 2. High requirements of equipment 3. Complex operation
		LAMP	1. Isothermal reaction 2. High efficiency and speed 3. High sensitivity and visualization	1. Complex design of primer 2. Low specificity
		Microfluidic chip	1. Multiple detection of pathogens 2. Integration of sample preparation and detection 3. Ability in automate analysis	Difficulty in chip design, material selection, processing, packaging, and storage
		ddPCR	1. High sensitivity and lowest limitation of detection 2. Facilitation and high degree of automation 3. Quantitative detection	1. Small reaction volume 2. Expensive equipment and reagents
		CRISPR	1. High speed and low cost 2. High sensitivity 3. Strong system stability 4. On-site detection	The accuracy of detection needs to be verified
Antibodies	1. Target: human antibodies stimulated by SARS-CoV-2 2. Easy sample collection and low detection threshold 3. Simple operation and high throughput 4. Limitation of timeframe 5. Lower sensitivity and specificity than those of nucleic acid detection	ELISA	1. Low difficulty of standardization of carrier 2. High sensitivity and specificity 3. Simple equipment	1. Long detection time and cumbersome steps 2. Limited single detection throughout
		LFIA (Colloidal gold method)	1. On-site detection caused by easy operation 2. High sensitivity and speed 3. Low cost 4. Mass production	1. Only qualitative analysis 2. Different reproducibility of different batches of products
		CLIA	1. High sensitivity and specificity 2. High throughput detection and high degree of automation	1. Special instrument 2. High detection cost
Antigen	1. Target: SARS-CoV-2 antigen 2. Simple and fast operation	LFIA (Colloidal gold method)	1. Fast and facile operation 2. Visualization 3. On-site detection and large-scale population screening	Low sensitivity

Fig. 8 Schematic illustration of the SERS-based immunoassay[77] MBA: thiosalicylic acid; BSA: bovine serum albumin; NPs: nanoparticles The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of operation procedure of COVID-19 SERS sensor[8] The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 10 Application of SnS2 microspheres for diagnosing the infectiousness of SARS-CoV-2[80] (A) Experimental procedure for diagnosing the infectiousness of SARS-CoV-2; (B) SVM analysis results to identify the mixture of the SARS-CoV-2 with complete viral structure and the lysed SARS-CoV-2; (C) Raman scattering diagram of three contamination situations of the novel coronavirus based on SnS2 substrates; (D) SVM analysis results to identify the lysed SARS-CoV-2; (E) SVM analysis results to identify the mixture of the SARS-CoV-2 with complete viral structure and the lysed SARS-CoV-2 after eliminating RNA and relysing virus samples; (F) SVM analysis results to identify the SARS-CoV-2 with complete viral structure; (G) SVM analysis results to identify the lysed SARS-CoV-2 after eliminating RNA and relysing virus samples. SVM: support vector machine The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 11 Schematic diagram of nano-plasma optic sensor for detection of SARS-CoV-2[89] (A) Schematic diagram of the nanoplasmonic resonance sensor for determination of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus concentration; (B) Photograph (middle) of one piece of Au nanocup array chip with a drop of water on top The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 12 SARS-CoV-2 detection based on 5G-enabled fluorescence biosensor[100] (a) The principle of the UCNPs based lateral flow assay in detection of SARS-CoV-2; (b) The working process of the proposed 5G-enabled fluorescence sensor; (c) The circuit configuration and hardware composition of the fluorescence sensor; CL: control line; TL1: test line 1; TL2: test line 2; UCNPs: up-conversion nanoparticles; EEPROM: electrically erasable programmable read only memory; ADC: application data center; MCU: motor control unit The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 13 Magnetic beads-based electrochemical assay for SARS-CoV-2 detection in untreated saliva[126] MBs: magnetic beads; MAb: monoclonal antibody; PAb: polyclonal antibody; AP: alkaline phosphatase; CB-SPE: carbon-based screen-printed electrodes The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 14 Principle of the proposed electrochemical biosensor for sensitive analysis of SARS-CoV-2 RNA[136] HP: hairpin; TdT: terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase; dNTP: deoxyribonucleotides; DPV: differential pulse voltammetry The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 15 Schematic diagram of rapid direct identification of SARS-CoV-2 using PMO-functionalized G-FET nano-sensors[148] G-FET: graphene field-effect transistor; PMO: phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligos The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 16 Schematic diagram of detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA based on magnetic particle spectroscopy biosensors[166] (A) Magnetic nanoparticles (gold) and polystyrene beads (silver) with streptavidin (purple)-modified surface are equipped with single stranded DNA strands (red and green, respectively) with a specific sequence via biotin-streptavidin-binding; (B) Applying a sinusoidal magnetic field (black) to a solution of nanoparticles results in reorientation of the nanoparticles which can be readout by measuring the magnetic response M of the nanoparticles; (C) Exemplary spectrum of the ratio of received harmonics as a function of excitation frequencies for 80 nm BNF magnetic particles The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 17 Detection process of SARS-CoV-2 of the magnetic relaxation switches assay with ULF NMR[169] ULF: ultra-low field; GPG: Gd3+ loaded PEG modified GQDs; GQDs: graphene quantum dots The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Fig. 18 Schematic diagram of the detection of SARS-CoV-2 based on colorimetric biosensors[187] UTM: universal transport medium The color figure can be obtained from online edition

Table 2 Comparison of novel biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection

Detection technology	Detection method	Object	Sample	Related material	Detection time	Lower detection limit	Ref.
SERS-based biosensors	Labelled-SERS	S protein	Lysis solution	Macro/nanostructure Au substrate	15 min	10 PFU/mL	[73]
SERS-based biosensors	Label-free SERS	Virus particles	Nasal/throat solution	Macro/nanostructure Au substrate, Au nanoparticles	15 min	60 copies/mL	[72]
SPR-based biosensors	Combining SPR and LSPR	Pseudovirus particles	N/A	Macro/nanostructure Au substrate, Au nanoparticles	15 min	370 vp/mL	[89]
Fluorescence biosensors	“signal on” mode	RNA	Lysis solution	N/A	15 samples/ 45 min	600 copies/mL	[102]
Electrochemical biosensors	Voltammetric/ amperometric biosensors	RNA	Nasal/throat solution	Au nanoparticles	5 min	6900 copies/mL	[128]
	Impedimetric biosensors	Antibodies	Serum	Au nanoparticles	30 min	N/A	[135]
	Potentiometric biosensors	Cholinesterase	Blood	Graphene and copper	~7 s (only detection time)	7.9 × 10^-8mol/L	[139]
	FET-based biosensors	RNA	Nasal/throat solution	Graphene	1 min (only detection time)	10-20 copies/mL	[150]
Magnetic biosensors	Magnetoresistance	Antibodies	Blood	Magnetic nanoparticles	10 min	5-10 ng/mL	[162]
	Magnetic particle spectroscopy platforms	S protein and N protein	PBS	Magnetic nanoparticles	N/A	1.56 nmol/L	[165]
	Nuclear magnetic resonance	Antibodies	Blood	Magnetic graphene quantum dot	2 min	248 vp/mL	[169]
Colorimetric biosensors	Agglomeration of nanoparticles	RNA	N/A	Au nanoparticles	>45 min	160 fmol/L	[185]

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